Classification Construct The Second Lineage Of...

The Synapsid clade (classification construct), are known as the second lineage of terrestrial vertebrates (amniote tetrapods), that originated at the end of the Paleozoic era (Pough, Janis, and Heiser 448). According to Pough, Janis, and Heiser, â€Å"Synapsids include mammals and their extinct pre-decessors, commonly called â€Å"mammal-like reptiles†, (can also be referred to as â€Å"non-mammalian†)†. The key distinction in distinguishing synapsids from other amniotes is their synapsid skull; the synapsid skull is a skull with the presence of a lower temporal (synapsid) fenestra, plus a few other skull features (Fig. 1) (Pough, Janis, and Heiser 448). Fig. 1- Diagram of the Synapsid Skull. The diagram depicts a generalized image of the Synapsid skull. The key in differentiating the Synapsid skull from other skulls is that temporal fenestra, which is located behind the orbit. Dilkes DW RR Reisz (1996), First record of a basal syanapsid (mammal-like reptile) in Gondwana. Proc. Royal. Soc. Lond. B 263: 1165-1170. Aerosaurus, Elliotsmithia, SYNAPSIDA, Varanops, Varanopseidae. http://palaeos.com/vertebrates/synapsida/synapsida.html When defining Synapsid, this term is often misused to only refer to the only extinct non-mammalian forms, when in actuality this group includes all the amniotes that descended from a common ancestor who had a synapsid type of temporal fenestration (Pough, Janis and Heiser, 448). A term when defining the Synapsid lineage is â€Å"mammal-like reptile† this term

General Chemistry Imu Exp 1 Essay Example For Students

General Chemistry Imu Exp 1 Essay Introduction Background Indicators are used in acid-base titrations to determine end points as both acid and base are colourless in nature. However, indicators chosen must be suitable according to the type of reactions such as: Strong acid-weak base titration Weak acid-strong base titration Strong acid-strong base titration Weak acid-weak base titration Only the first two mentioned above will be investigated in this experiment. Aims/Objectives 1. To understand to importance of selecting suitable indicators for detecting the end-points of acid-base titrations. . To obtain titration curves for: a. Strong acid-weak base titration b. Weak acid-strong base titration Learning Outcome 1. Able to choose a suitable indicator for detecting the end points of different types of acid-base titrations. 2. Able to draw and hence determine the end-point on the titration curves. Materials and Methods The experiment is carried out according to the procedures described in Experiment (1): Investigati on of the suitability of indicators and instrumental detection of equivalence points in acid-base titration under the General Chemistry module Results Part 1: Suitability of Indicators A. Strong acid-weak base titration Acid: HCl (aq) Base: NH4OH (aq) Reaction: HC1(aq) + NH4OH(aq) > NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l) Indicator: Phenolphthalein | |1 |2 | |Final burette reading/ |29. 90 |29. 70 | |Initial burette reading/ |0. 00 |0. 0 | |Titre value/ |29. 90 |29. 70 | Mean titre value = = 29. 80 1 Indicator: Methyl orange | |1 |2 | |Final burette reading/ |27. 00 |27. 00 | |Initial burette reading/ |0. 00 |0. 0 | |Titre value/ |27. 00 |26. 80 | Mean titre value = = 26. 90 B. Weak acid-strong base titration Acid: CH3COOH(aq) Base: NaOH(aq) Reaction: CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) Indicator: Phenolphthalein | |1 |2 | |Final burette reading/ |25. 50 |25. 0 | |Initial burette reading/ |0. 00 |0. 20 | |Titre value/ |25. 50 |25. 60 | Mean titre value = = 25. 55 Indicator: Methyl orange | |1 |2 | |Final burette reading/ |4. 60 |4. 0 | |Initial burette reading/ |4. 20 |4. 60 | |Titre value/ |0. 40 |0. 30 | Mean titre value = = 0. 35 2 Discussion 1. The colour change for both phenolphthalein and methyl orange in all titrations done in this experiments are from colourless to pale pink and from red to orange respectively since the base is added from the burette to the acid in the conical flask. 2. Indicator |Colour in acid |Colour in alkaline | |Phenolphthalein |Colourless |Red | |Methyl orange |Red |Yellow | 2. Titration curve of strong acid-weak base There is a steady increase in pH when 0 – 20. 00 of NH4OH (aq) is added. There is a sharp increase in pH when 27. 60of NH4OH (aq) is added. The end-point for this titration is at pH 5. where the graph is the steepest. Titration curve of weak acid-strong base There is a steady increase in pH when 0 – 20. 00 of NaOH (aq) is added. There is a sharp increase in pH when 25. 30of NaOH (aq) is added. The end-point for this titration is at pH 9. 5 where the graph is the steepest. Differences between the two curves Curve of strong acid -weak base starts at pH 1. 11 whereas curve of weak acid-strong base starts at pH 1. 21 Curve of strong acid-weak base levels off at pH 8. 34 whereas curve of weak acid-strong base levels off at pH 11. 80 Curve of strong acid-weak base has an end point at pH 5. whereas curve of weak acid-strong base levels off at pH 9. 5 Curve of strong acid-weak base has a sharp increase when 27. 60of NH4OH (aq) is added whereas the curve of weak acid-strong base has a sharp increase when 25. 30of NaOH (aq) is added. 3. Titration of strong acid-weak base The end-point is at 27. 75 of NH4OH (aq) added (obtained from graph). Phenolphthalein only shows colour change when 29. 80 of NH4OH (aq) is added, hence it changes colour at the wrong volume (too late, after end-point volume), thus it would be impossible to find to end-point accurately. .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 , .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .postImageUrl , .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 , .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964:hover , .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964:visited , .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964:active { border:0!important; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964:active , .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964 .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub4ad1120601855a0c4b30d7213b06964:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Homosexuals In Military EssayOn the other hand, methyl orange changes colour when 26. 90 of NH4OH (aq) is added, hence the colour change coincides more closely with 27. 75. Titration of weak acid-strong base The end-point is at 25. 75 of NaOH (aq) added (obtained from graph). Methyl orange shows colour change when 0. 35 of NaOH (aq) is added, hence it changes colour at the wrong volume (too early, before end-point volume), thus it would be impossible to find to end-point accurately. On the other hand, phenolphthalein changes colour when 25. 5 of NaOH (aq) is added, hence the colour change coincides much more closely with 25. 75. 7 4. Titration of strong acid-weak base A su itable indicator for this titration is therefore methyl orange, for the reasons stated in statement (3) above. Titration of weak acid-strong base A suitable indicator for this titration is therefore phenolphthalein, for the reasons stated in statement (3) above. 5. All mean titre values were calculated from titre values that were  ±0. 20 of each other. This is known as concordant results. 6. Precautions: Both Part 1: Suitability of Indicators and Part 2: pH titration curves a. The line of sight is perpendicular to the scale reading on the burette when taking both initial and final reading to avoid parallax error. b. A piece of plain white paper was place behind the burette when taking the readings to avoid error caused by refraction of light when it passes through the curved surface of the burette. c. The reading was taken from the bottom of the meniscus. d. All apparatus were rinsed with distilled water followed by the chemical intended to fill them in with respectively. Part 1: Suitability of Indicators a. A piece of white tile was placed below the conical flask during the titration to allow for better determination of any colour changes. b. The conical flask was swirled gently so the mixture would be uniform/homogenous of the acid and base added Part 2: pH titration curves a. The magnetic stirrer was turned off and a glass rod was used to stir the other side of the mixture (the side further away from the magnet) and then removed before the reading of the pH was recorded so the mixture would be uniform/homogenous of the acid and base added. . Proper disposal of waste was done to ensure the safety of the environment and as a good hygiene practice. a. Worn latex gloves were thrown into the paddle bin. b. Liquid wastes were drained directed into the sink. c. There were no solid wastes in this experiment. Conclusion Only indicators that changes colour completely over one of two drops at the end-point (determined from pH titration curve) is suitable to b e used to determine end-points of titrations Reference No references were used in this report END OF REPORT 8 Contents Introduction ? Background 1 ? Aim1 ? Learning outcome1 Materials and Methods1 Results ? Part 1: Suitability of Indicators ? A. Strong acid-weak base titration1 ? B. Weak acid-strong base titration2 ? Part 2: pH titration Curves ? A. Strong acid-weak base titration ? Table of pH and volume of NH4OH(aq) added3 ? Graph of pH against volume of NH4OH(aq) added4 ? B. Weak acid-strong base titration ? Table of pH and volume of NaOH(aq) added5 ? Graph of pH against volume of NaOH(aq) added6 Discussion7 Conclusion8 Reference8

The Beatles Essay Scaruffi Example For Students

The Beatles Essay Scaruffi The Beatles to this day are one of the most famous andpopular rock ‘n roll groups in the world. The Beatlesinclude George Harrison, John Lennon(1940-1980), PaulMcCartney, and Richard Starkey(Ringo Starr). All of theBeatles where born and raised in Liverpool, England. JohnLennon was considered the leader of the band. GeorgeHarrison was the lead guitarist. John Lennon was a songwriter, one of the two lead singers, and rhythm guitarist. Paul McCartney was a song writer, one of the two leadsingers, and a bassist. Ringo Starr played the drums. John Lennon’s first band was called the Quarrymen (namedafter his High School). None of the three Beatles were inthis band. Paul joined the group in 1957 and Harrisonjoined in 1958. They played with bass guitarist SutSutcliffe, and Pete Best, a drummer. Sutcliffe left in 1961and Ringo Starr joined the band. Pete Best was asked toleave the band on April 16, 1962. He was considered theBeatles undisputed sex symbol. The Beatles were discoveredon November 9, 1961 by Brian Epstein, a manager of a recordstore in Liverpool as well as an x British Army soldier. We will write a custom essay on The Beatles Scaruffi specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The Beatles first two song were â€Å"Love Me Do† andâ€Å"Please, Please Me.† The Beatles starred in two movies, â€Å"AHard Days Night,† and â€Å"Help.† They also had their own fulllength cartoon called â€Å"Yellow Submarine.† The movie â€Å"A HardDays Night† earned 1.3 million dollars in its first week. The Beatles early music was influenced by singers ChuckBerry and Elvis Presley. In November of 1963 the Beatles performed in front ofthe Queen of England. This was an incredible honor. By theend of 1963 the Beatles were the biggest music group inEngland. The Beatles came to New York City for the firsttime in 1964. They were an instant success.A couple ofweeks later after their New York appearance, the five bestselling records were by the Beatles. They became worldfamous by the end of 1964. Also in 1964 the song â€Å"I Want ToHold Your Hand† marked the beginning of â€Å"BEATLEMANIA.†The Beatles were unusual because most rock was strongbeat with no melody. The Beatles added melody to rock. TheBeatles also added strong and meaningful lyrics. John Lennonwrote a book called â€Å"In His Own Write.† The Beatles starteda new era of music. They wore their hair long and shaggy. This haircut was known as the Beatles haircut. All acrossthe world people started wearing their hair like theBeatles. John Lennon described the Beatles like this â€Å"When yousaid it, it was crawly things, when you read it, it was beatmusic.† The Beatles made their last stage appearancetogether in 1966. In 1967 the Beatles put together a masterpiece. The master piece was Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely HeartClub Band. The Beatles never had a chance to performSergeant Peppers Lonely Heart Club Band. Also in 1967 BrianEpstein, the manager of the Beatles, died. Also in 1967 theBeatles directed a movie, Magical Mystery Tour. The moviewas about themselves in which they toured the Englishcountryside in search of wonder, fun, and magic. In 1970 the world famous and world loved Beatlesseparated. Everybody was hoping to see the Beatles comeback together. That hope ended when the peace loving JohnLennon was killed outside his New York City apartment by 25year old Mark David Chapman.

Hydro One Essays

Hydro One Essays Hydro One Essay Hydro One Essay Another objective to help this Lana for Formosa is to work out a long-term deal with the unions, preferably around five years. 2) Why are they spending on the Bruce-Milton/ Toronto line and the Smart Meters? As Formosa talked about, the environment is getting to be a bigger issue for the industry. The Smart Meter going hand-in-hand with smart pricing can hopefully reduce use and save customers money, and help customer satisfaction. They also want to bring electricity down from the Bruce nuclear plant on Lake Huron to Milton and the Greater Toronto area because the two nines they have are insufficient. There is a lot of wind generation in the Bruce area. 3) Putting yourself in the shoes of CEO Laura Formosa, what risks does Hydro One face? There are a number of risks that Hydro One faces. One risk includes the uncertainty involving the government, in particular the upcoming election in Ontario. If the ruling party is re-elected, Hydro One would be expected to lead the initiatives despite their adverse impact on the company revenues and earnings. Formosa has doubts whether they can deliver on the governments inspiration goals without compromising its commercial viability. Other risks include the safety issues for the employees, adequate electronic supply, equipment failure, and also issues in the environment. 4) Consider the elements of Hardy Ones ERM process. What are its strengths and weaknesses? What recommendations would you make to overcome the weaknesses about the ERM process? A strength of the ERM process are that it fully involves every aspect of the business. I also like the chart they use to rank each risk involved. Also, there is omelet separation between risk management and the internal audit. This process also gives high visibility and scrutiny, and the idea of reviewing the risk profile regularly is also a smart idea. Some weaknesses of the ERM process includes the fact that only management IS involved in the process. Risk experts arent really involved until the risks have been established by others. Also, only the highest risks have highest priority in terms of finding mitigation option. I would recommend getting the risk experts involved much earlier in the process.

Practice of Teaching in Dyslexic Students Essay

Practice of Teaching in Dyslexic Students - Essay Example It is essential to comprehend that several learning problems come up if the teacher fails to recognise dyslexia at the right time and it makes the teaching inappropriate. Understanding dyslexia as a learning difficulty involves the perception that something is 'wrong' with the learner and here the teacher's focus shifts from celebrating the strengths to identifying weaknesses. Such a perception of the students with dyslexia emphasises the remediation by specialists. However, it is essential to implement resolution by knowledgeable class and subject teachers and supported by specialist help and intervention appropriate to the needs of the students. As dyslexia is a vital problem facing many students in the contemporary educational system, it is essential to have a clear-cut knowledge about this issue as well as the ways to deal with it. It is essential for the educators to make instructional adjustments in order to make the dyslexic students successful in an academic environment. ... In a reflective analysis of the social, emotional and behavioural aspects of dyslexia, it becomes evident that the role of a teacher who caters to the various needs of dyslexic students is essential for the effective teaching practice in the area. Evidences from significant researches on the topic suggest that if dyslexia is not very early identified, it can affect the person in a vicious manner and it can lead from learning to behaviour problems and from behaviour problems to increased learning disability. The specific difficulties associated with the dyslexic students stress the importance of effective measures by teachers in classroom environment. Thus, it is essential to maintain that dyslexia affects the skills of information processing in particular working memory if the student, along with phonological awareness, labelling, rapid naming and the speed of processing. It also results in the failure to develop language and literacy skills to the expected level which in turn limits the access to curriculum in school, continuing education, and employment. Therefore, the teacher has a fundamental role in dealing with the issues faced by the dyslexic students. In the UK, it is currently believed that the dyslexic students process information differently than other children. Thus, if the teacher takes this difference in processing information into account, these students can learn effectively, although perhaps more slowly in relation to literacy. Therefore, this paper makes a profound analysis of how the teacher can make the classroom dyslexia friendly and the lessons more accessible to the student. It also attempts to investigate how structured, multisensory teaching,

Analysis for( drugs and body class) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis for( drugs and body class) - Essay Example Cocaine was banned in the United States when the cases of cocaine related deaths became over 5000 in 1914 (Platt, 17). This is because people were snorting cocaine and this had an effect on their body by causing nasal damages. Cocaine has its important aspects since it helps to reduce pain for patients undergoing surgery. Cocaine is used as an anesthetic in eye surgery and used to treat morphine addiction. The use of cocaine was glamorized in the 1980s because it had become famous for its uses and since it is a highly addictive stimulant that produces profound feelings of pleasure. Platt stated that cocaine was popularized by dealers and glamorized by the Hollywood media in the 1980s despite its devastating effects in the society. Cocaine is introduced to the body using various ways depending with how the individuals wanted to satisfy their body systems. Cocaine can be snorted, injected in body, smoked, or eaten (Platt, 20). Cocaine was glamorized in the 1980s because it is a powerful stimulant and directly affects the brain. Platt stated that the drug introduces a sense of exhilaration in the user primarily by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the midbrain. The use of cocaine makes the user a slave to drug since it makes the individual want more drugs to gratify the body’s needs. Cocaine was expensive but people still bought the drug to make their bodies’ active, decrease fatigue and to increase concentration in various activities like learning abilities. In the movie Al Pacino Scarface, a story is told of Alpacino the Cuban refugee who goes to Miami with nothing and rises up to become a powerful drug top dog. The movie shows how people are addicted to cocaine and are involved in dangerous criminal activities like drug trafficking to satisfy their needs. Other movies that portray the use of cocaine include; Trainspotting

Discourse on Method Essay Example for Free

Discourse on Method Essay Are there any identical restrictions on the ways in which human beings may use and treat nonhuman animals? If so, what are they and how are they considered morally justified? In this philosophical enterprise, I will first review three standard responses to these questions and briefly indicate why none of them is entirely satisfactory. Afterwards, I will elucidate what axioms should be adopted as the kernel of truth in each of three responses, and finally juxtapose them into the fourth axiom, which is more adequate position. In so doing, I will argue the importance, from an ethical point of view, of further inquiry into the nature and extent of consciousness in nonhuman animals. Historically, Western philosophers have established three postulates explaining the validity of using and treating nonhuman animals in experiment disregarding the questions about its nature and its extent of ethical restrictions. One, they argue on the basis of our indirect obligation to animals maintaining that act of expending animals for different experiments is only impermissible if and only if we have a direct obligation. Two, humans do not have any obligation to animals, and given this fact humans can do whatever they want with animals. And lastly, direct obligation posits that ethical restrictions on the use of animals are possible only on the basis of considering their sake. Among the most noted philosophers in the western tradition, St. Thomas Aquinas and Immanuel Kant have acknowledged restrictions on human conduct with regard to the utility and treatment of animals, but these restrictions are, in their stance, ultimately grounded upon the obligation to other human beings, and to animals. Amalgamating views that can be traced both to the Bible and Aristotle, Aquinas held a hierarchical or means-ends view of the interplay between plants, animals, and humans respectively: There is no sin in using a thing for the purpose of which it is. Now the order of things is such that the imperfect are for the perfect†¦ things, like plants which merely have life, are alike for animals, and all animals for man. Wherefore, it is not unlawful if men use plants for the good of animals, and animals for the good of man, as the Philosopher states (Politics i. 3) Nevertheless, it does not follow for Aquinas, that one can do anything to an animal. For example, one is still prohibited from killing another person’s ox because this will be an act of injury other’s property, which is an undeniable act of theft or robbery. And there may even be similarly indirect grounds for not harming animals that are no one’s property. Thus, Aquinas explains, if any passages of Holy Writ seem to forbid us to be cruel to dumb animals, for instance to kill a bird with its young: this is either to remove man’s thoughts from being cruel to other men, and lest through being cruel to animals one become cruel to human beings: or because injury to an animal leads to the temporal hurt of man, either of the doer of the deed, or of another. Kant also held such position insofar as humans obligated to restrain themselves in their dealings with animals due to their obligations to other humans. Thus, So far as animals are concerned, we have no direct duties. Animals are not self-conscious and are there merely as means to an end. That end is man†¦ our duties towards animals is merely indirect duties towards humanity. Animal nature has analogies to human nature, and by doing our duties to animals in respect to manifestations of human nature, we indirectly do our duty to humanity†¦ If†¦ any acts of animal are analogous to human acts and spring from the same principles. We have duties towards animals because thus we cultivate the same duties towards human beings. If a man shoot his dog because the animal is no longer capable of service, he does not fail in his duty to the dog, for the dog cannot judge, but his act is inhuman and damages in itself that humanity which it is his duty to show towards mankind. The arguments provided by these philosophers validate the philosophical perspective incorporated in the axiom of indirect obligation. Albeit the fact that we are in a way have obligations to animals, this should not be misconstrued as obligations that humans owed to the animals but rather these obligations are owed to humanity. Nonetheless, there are significant problems with Aquinas and Kant’s conjectures, at least in their present forms. First, insofar as Aquinas assumes that it is necessary for humans to use animals for food and hence to deprive them of life, his position must be reconsidered in the light of modern knowledge about nutrition. It has been maintained, for example, that a perfectly nutritious diet may require little or no deprivation of animal life and, even if it does, that the average American consumes twice as much animal protein as his/her body can possibly use . To such an extent, we continue to consume large quantities of animal foodstuff requiring pain and the deprivation of life, then. We do so, not so much to serve vital nutritional demands, but rather to indulge our acquired tastes. Secondly, insofar as Aquinas’ view is based upon hierarchical worldview and presupposes that those lower in the order or less perfect are to serve good of those higher or more perfect, it is open to a serious theoretical objection. Unfortunately, it is not difficult to imagine that a group of beings ? perhaps from another part of the universe ? who are more rational and more perfect than we. Let say that such beings are impeccable than we are, it seems to follow, if we adopt the principles underlying Aquinas’ stance, that we ought to acquiesce in their using us for whichever of their purposes they fancy we would serve. But do we want to agree with the rightness of this? And if we take Aquinas’ standpoint, would we have any grounds on which to disagree. As for Kant’s view, the main difficulties have to do first with his emphasis on self-consciousness as a condition for being the object of a direct obligation, and second with his assumption that all and only human beings are self-conscious. I will postpone consideration of the first difficulty until later. For the moment, let me simply develop the second. Even supposing that self-consciousness is a necessary condition for the being the object of direct obligation, it does not follow either that all human beings are the object direct obligations or that no animal can be the object of such obligation. First, advances in the medical knowledge, techniques, and technology have, among other things, preserved and prolonged the lives of a number of human beings who are severely retarded or otherwise mentally impaired due to illness or accident. In our day, then, if not in Kant’s, one cannot assume that all human beings are self-conscious. Second, some contemporary researchers have suggested that at least some non-human animals have a capacity to become self-conscious that has, until recently, been undetected or ignored by men. Whence, even if we follow Kant and accept self-consciousness as a condition for being the object of direct obligations, it is does not follow that all and only humans satisfy this condition. Some humans, it may turn out, will not be the objects of direct obligations and some animals will. If animals are not conscious, that is, if they are not sentient and have no capacity for pleasure, pain, or any mental conditions, they may not even be the objects of indirect obligations. Insofar as Aquinas says that it is possible to be â€Å"cruel to dumb animals† and Kant says that â€Å"he who is cruel to animals becomes hard in dealings with men,† each presupposes that animals, unlike plants and machines, are sentient and are thereby capable of sensation and consciousness. Thus it is surprising to find Rene Descartes comparing animals to machines. Nevertheless, this is just what he did in Discourse on Method when he compared machines made by the hand of man with human and nonhuman animal bodies made by the hand of God: From this aspect the body is regarded as a machine which, having been made by the hands of God, is incomparably better arranged, and possesses in itself movements which are much more admirable than any of those which can be invented by man. † Living human bodies were, for Descartes, distinguished from living animal bodies by the presence of an immortal soul which was a prerequisite for mental experiences. Without a soul, a biological body was a natural automaton, â€Å"much more splendid†, but in kind no different from machines. For Descartes, the criterion for dichotomizing those living bodies which were ensouled from those which were not was the capacity to use language. The former, he posited, included all and only human beings. , there are none so depraved and stupid, without even exempting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be which can do the same. Insofar as Descartes’ position presupposes that all and only human beings have the capacity to use language, it is open to the same sort of criticisms and objections that we raised against Kant. That is, advancements in medicine are providing more nonlinguistic humans and advances in science are suggesting that at least some nonhuman creatures have more linguistic facility than we previously assumed. Moreover, even the if Descartes were correct on his reasoning that the capacity to use language is uniquely human, why should this, rather than the capacity to feel pain and experience distress, be the principal criterion for determining the nature and extent of ethical restrictions on the expenditure and treatment of animals? It is this objection which sets the stage for positions which hold that humans have direct obligations to at least some animals. Jeremy Bentham argues that pain and pleasure were what governed behavior and that any ethical system which was founded on anything but maximizing the net balance of pleasure over pain, dealt in â€Å"sounds instead of sense, in caprice instead of reason, in darkness instead of light. † Every action for Bentham was to be assessed in terms of its likelihood of maximizing the net balance of happiness. But, he noted, if the capacity to experience pleasure and pain was what qualified one to be taken into account in estimating the effects of various courses of action, then nonhuman as well as human animals would have to be taken into account insofar as they, too, had the capacity to experience pleasure and pain. Thus, for Bentham, it is sentience, or capacity for pleasure and pain, that determines whether a being qualifies for mortal consideration. The question now is what grounds we have to consider that animals do suffer from our â€Å"cruel† acts. In response to such question, one holding a utilitarian direct obligation theory must show why individuals believe that animals are conscious. There are number of ways one might go about this. One, one could stress behavioral similarities between men and animals in their respective responses to certain standard pain and pleasure producing stimuli. Comparing the behavior of animals to infants would be valid indication of such similarities. Two, we could stress relevant neuropsychological similarities between humans and animals. The fundamental insight of indirect obligation theories is their recognition of difference between simple and reflective consciousness. Beings having only simple consciousness can experience pain, have desires, and make choices. But they are not capable of reflecting upon their experiences, desires, and choices and altering their behavior as a result of self-conscious evaluation and deliberation. Beings who can do this I will, following John Locke, label â€Å"persons†. A person, in Locke’s stance, is â€Å"A thinking intelligent being that has reason and reflection and can consider itself as itself, the same thinking thing, in different times and places. † although they are mistaken in believing that the class of human beings, indirect obligation theorists were correct to emphasize the social status of persons. For only persons are capable of tracing the consequences and implications of various courses of action and then deliberating and deciding to embark on one rather than another on grounds other than self-interest. To do this is part of what it means to have a morality, and it is the capacity for taking the moral pint of view (that is, voluntarily restricting one’s appetite or desire for the sake of others) that gives the person their special worth. The fundamental point of Descartes’ no obligation axiom was to recognize the connection between the development and exercise of language. As Stuart Hampshire has recently pointed out, although people often associate the use of language primarily with communication, â€Å"language’s more distinctive and far-reaching power is to bring possibilities before the mind. Culture has its principal source in the use of the word ‘if’ in counterfactual speculation†. Only language, then, gives us the power to construct complex unrealized possibilities. Therefore, a being cannot be considered a person without the incorporation of language in human psyche. Finally, the fundamental argument of direct obligation principles was to note that one need not be a person to be the object of a moral obligation. Simple consciousness and sentience is sufficient to entitle a being to be considered for its own sake in the ethical deliberations of persons. If, for example, the capacity to feel pain is sufficient for prima facie obligation not to cause gratuitous pain to persons, why it is not also valid ground for a similar obligation not to cause pain to animals? With regard to the evil of avoidable and unjustifiable pain, the question is, as Bentham emphasized, not â€Å"Can they reason nor can they talk? † but, â€Å"can they suffer? † Putting all of this together, we can say that persons, who are characterized as possessing reflective consciousness, may have a higher status than beings having only simple consciousness. Their special worth is a function of the extent to which they use language â€Å"to bring possibilities before the mind† and then restrain their more trivial desires for the sake of not harming others whom they recognize, from the moral point of view, as their equals in certain respects. Among the beings whose interests must be taken into account for their own sake in the moral deliberations of persons are beings possessing only simple consciousness. To the extent that persons reluctantly cause pains, suffering, and even death to beings possessing simple consciousness in order to meet important needs, what they do may be justified by appeal to their higher status or greater worth. But, to the extent that persons inflict avoidable pain and suffering on such beings merely to satisfy certain trivial tastes or desires, they pervert their greater capacities. In so doing, they ironically undermine their claim to higher status or worth and thereby weaken any justification they may have had for sacrificing beings having only simple consciousness for important ends. References: Aquinas, S. T. (1981). Summa Theologica (F. o. t. E. D. Province, Trans. ): Christian Classics. Bentham, J. (1988). The Principles of Morals and Legislation: Prometheus Books. Descartes, R. (1999). Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy (Fourth ed. ): Hackett Pub Co Inc. Hampshire, S. (1979). Human Nature. New York Review of Books. Kant, I. (1963). Lectures on Ethics (L. Infield, Trans. ): Harper and Row. Lappe, F. M. (1975). Fantasies and Famine: Harper and Row. Locke, J. (1994). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Prometheus Books. Velasquez, M. (1985). Ethics Theory and Practice: Prentice-Hall Inc.